Puppy Development through a Human Bioecological Lens

A review of

Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory applied to puppy development: A new approach to understanding and researching puppy raising

Ana Goncalves Costa, Torben Nielsen, Robert Christley, and Susan Hazel

Introduction

Dog owners typically want friendly, safe, and obedient pets that behave as ‘good canine citizens’ within their community. Raising such a well-rounded companion is a complex process that involves a range of factors, including the dog’s breeding, upbringing, the owners’ expectations and experiences, and the environment in which the dog is raised.

However, much of the existing research on puppy development tends to focus on individual factors in isolation, rather than considering the broader, interconnected influences. This paper suggests applying Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Theory, as a framework to better understand and study the various factors and environments that shape puppy development.

What is Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Theory?

Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory framework was originally developed to assist health practitioners and researchers in understanding human development within the context of the different environments a person interacts with. Though it was originally developed to study human growth, the theory can also be applied to understanding how other animals, like puppies, develop within their unique environments. By using this theory, stakeholders such as researchers, breeders, and owners can gain a valuable framework for understanding the complexities and interactions involved in raising puppies.

The model incorporates four key elements said to influence development – interactions that facilitate development (Proximal Processes), elements linked to the individual previous experience (Person or Puppy), different environments (Context), and the effect of time (Time).

The Model Explained as it Applies to Puppies

At the core of this model are Proximal Processes. These refer to the interactions between the puppy and their environment that occur regularly over time. For an interaction to be considered a proximal process, it must be recurring (not a one-off event), occur over an extended period, and be of sufficient intensity and increasing complexity to lead to meaningful developmental changes. For puppies, these interactions could include the regular training sessions they have with their owners, but also the regular interactions they have with objects for socialisation purposes such as activity gyms and obstacle courses if repeatedly exposed. These proximal processes can be positive in nature or may be negative, such as training using excessive punishment or regular exposure to an experience that invokes a fear response. 

Puppy elements are the internal factors that a puppy brings to its environment, influencing how it develops. These factors include the puppy’s temperament, genetics, and the resources it has. These traits affect not only how the puppy responds to experiences but also how others interact with it.

• Force characteristics are internal traits that affect how a puppy reacts to its environment, such as sociability, trainability, fearfulness, and impulsivity.
• Resource characteristics refer to prior experiences and skills a puppy has that they bring to their interactions, such as its level of socialization or its physical and mental health.
• Demand characteristics are physical traits, like the puppy’s breed, size, and sex, that influence how others perceive and interact with it, often based on preconceived ideas (e.g. breed biases, sex preferences).

Context elements refer to the different environments that influence a puppy’s development and are in turn influenced by the puppy. These environments can be divided into four systems: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem. All of these systems are connected and affect each other.

• The microsystem is the closest environment and refers to the immediate surroundings where the puppy directly interacts with people, objects, and activities. For a puppy, this includes interactions with the breeder, owner, family members, other pets in the home, and people the puppy regularly meets outside the home, such as the veterinarian or puppy school trainer. These direct interactions play a direct role in the puppy’s development and behaviour.
• The mesosystem focuses on the connections between different parts of the microsystem and how they work together to influence the puppy in an indirect manner. It highlights the relationships between the puppy’s different environments, even if the puppy is not directly involved in those interactions. For example, if the puppy’s owner has a poor relationship with the puppy’s trainer or veterinarian, it may affect the puppy’s experience in training sessions or at the vet, even if the puppy isn’t directly involved in the conflict. 
• The exosystem includes broader environments that don’t directly involve the puppy but still influence its development. These are settings or structures that impact the puppy’s life indirectly by affecting the microsystem or mesosystem. For example, the puppy may be influenced by its owner’s workplace due to time constraints, leaving the owner with less time or energy for training and socializing, which can ultimately affect the puppy’s development.
• The macrosystem represents the broader cultural, societal, and economic contexts that influence the puppy’s development. This includes the values, customs, laws, and cultural beliefs of the society they’re being raised in. For example, cultural attitudes toward dogs and their role within their culture (e.g. family members, working animals) will shape the environment the puppy grows up in. Additionally, societal expectations about pet behavior in public, laws related to pet care, and the availability of resources such as veterinary care or dog training all contribute to the overall environment in which the puppy develops.

Overlaying these proximal processes, puppy, and context elements is the impact of Time. The influence of time and its impact can be divided into three categories: microtime, mesotime, and macrotime.

• Microtime refers to how individual interactions unfold, such as how focused the owner or puppy is during a training session and the immediate outcome of that session.
• Mesotime looks at how often these interactions occur. For example, we know socialization should happen frequently, but it’s still unclear how much is enough before the benefits start to level off.
• Macrotime focuses on larger, long-term societal changes, such as cultural shifts and historical trends. For example, increasing urbanization may change how people raise puppies, with more people living in apartments. This could shift societal views on dogs’ roles in the family and place more emphasis on training and behaviour modification to adapt to smaller living spaces.

So What Does this Mean for Breeders and Owners?

While complex on the surface, Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Theory of Development offers valuable insights into the factors that shape puppy development and how these influences work together to raise dogs suited for modern lifestyles. As this paper emphasizes, puppies are not raised “in a vacuum” where simple socialization leads to a well-adjusted dog. Each puppy is unique and interacts with, and is influenced by, many different environments at once. Understanding this helps us support each puppy in its specific environment, maximizing the chances of a successful future.

For dog breeders, the theory provides a comprehensive framework for understanding how various layers of influence impact a puppy’s development. By recognizing the complex interactions between the puppy, its environment, and the people involved, breeders can take a more holistic approach to raising healthy, well-adjusted puppies both at home and beyond. Additionally, breeders can better educate puppy owners, equipping them with the tools to continue nurturing their puppy’s development in their own unique context, ensuring that the needs and expectations of both the puppy and owner are met.

This work by the Functional Dog Collaborative is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.